- Frost wedging: This occurs when water seeps into cracks in rocks and freezes. As the water freezes, it expands and puts pressure on the rock, causing it to crack and break apart.

- Thermal expansion and contraction: This occurs when rocks are exposed to changes in temperature. As the temperature of a rock increases, it expands, and as the temperature decreases, it contracts. This expansion and contraction can cause the rock to crack and break apart.

- Abrasion: This occurs when rocks are rubbed against each other or against other hard objects. This can be caused by wind, water, or ice.