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In prokaryotes such as bacteria, reproduction occurs via binary fission, a straightforward division that duplicates the entire cell, including its circular DNA.

In contrast, eukaryotic cells—found in plants, animals, and fungi—enclose their genetic material within a membrane‑bound nucleus and house numerous specialized organelles.

Eukaryotic Cells and Their Organelles

Eukaryotic cells possess a plasma membrane, a gel‑like cytoplasm, DNA confined to the nucleus, ribosomes that synthesize proteins, and several membrane‑bound organelles such as mitochondria, the endoplasmic reticulum, the Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, and, in plant cells, chloroplasts where photosynthesis takes place.

The Cell Cycle: Interphase and M Phase

Cell division proceeds through two major periods: Interphase, which includes G1, S, and G2 phases for growth and DNA replication, and the M phase, where mitosis and cytokinesis occur.

Mitosis: Five Distinct Stages

• Prophase: Chromosomes condense into visible structures, and the mitotic spindle forms.
• Prometaphase: Spindle fibers attach to chromosomes, pulling them toward the cell’s equator.
• Metaphase: Chromosomes align along the metaphase plate, ensuring each daughter nucleus receives one copy of every chromosome.
• Anaphase: Sister chromatids separate and move to opposite poles of the cell; cytokinesis typically begins during this stage.
• Telophase: Nuclear membranes reform around the two sets of chromatids, and the cell prepares to complete division.

Telophase and Cytokinesis in Plant Cells

Animal cells achieve cytokinesis by forming a contractile ring that pinches the membrane inward. Plant cells, however, cannot contract their cell wall. Instead, a cell plate forms at the metaphase plate, expanding outward from both sides of the cell. Once the cell plate is complete, new plasma membranes form along its surface, and the daughter cells separate, each entering a new interphase.